3m Case: Business Strategies over Its History Essay

1. Describe the organizational structures and devices 3M uses to encourage entrepreneurial activity. Why do they work? 3M heavily based its business on innovation and while doing this it always supported its employees in terms of being innovative. 3M also always followed the alternative ways in order to increase their profit and market share, and they found that one of the best ways is through organizational innovation. Therefore, in order to improve their business 3M developed 6 different strategies over its history. These strategies helped 3M to promote entrepreneurship and increase customer satisfaction within the market. First strategy of 3M’s was getting close to customers and understanding their needs.3M started their businesses by selling sandpaper and the only way they could generate sales was by getting close to the customers and demonstrating their products for them. This helped them to understand customer’s needs better based on the feedbacks they get from demonstrating their products to this selected group of customers. Afterwards, as a second strategy they tried to seek out niche markets no matter how small they are. Following the success of the first strategy, 3M found that if they offered customers what they wanted, these customers will be loyal to their company. Thus they developed the second strategy to seek niche markets no matter how small, as this will allow them for charge premium prices for their products. Then they included product diversification as the third strategy. By being close to the customers, 3M identified problems that they can solve for their customers through technical expertise. This was efficient as it ensure that they continued to diversify their product offerings by developing new products to solve new or unattended customer needs. Once 3M found a new product to offer in their niche market they would move on to develop related products and thus occupy leadership positions in these markets. As the fourth strategy, they gave importance to the product development and innovation through research. This strategy was developed in line with the third strategy which was encouraging diversification. If 3M where to constantly diversify their product and service offering, the company understood that a support to its system is needed along with improved innovation and new product development to ensure that the company continues in line with their business model. As it is very important in any kind of developing business and as by time 3M gained a good place in market, they decided to get knowledge sharing strategy as the fifth one. This became official with the establishment of the technical forum in 1950s, with the aim of sharing knowledge within the company. This forum comprised of technical council and directors that held annual shows to encourage knowledge sharing in 3M. And lastly, as the sixth strategy they decided to adopt encourage achievement through a rewarding system. This strategy was adopting an employee appraisal scheme that was encouraging achievement by rewarding employees who generated successful business ideas. Employees that successful innovate new products are promoted to be the managers of that product division, this ensured that other staff members are motivated to work harder and discover new product innovation as they seek to one day become managers of their developed product lines. 2. How does 3M distinguish between incremental and fundamental innovations? 3M established a new product development central research laboratory in 1940 in other to distinguish between fundamental and incremental innovation. This approach helped the company to explore the feasibility of new products or technologies that were not related to existing ones. Incremental innovation means innovation made based on existing products and technologies while fundamental innovations are those that are not related to existing products or technologies. In the 1980s, two separate laboratories were developed in order to identify the long term and the short term researches. Short term researches were more of incremental innovation that were designed to respond to industrial and consumer needs, life science, electronics and information technologies and graphic technologies with a life span of 1-5 years. However the corporate lab was designed for fundamental innovations with researches of over 10 years. 3. Describe, as best you can from the case, the culture of the organisation. What does this depend upon? 3M based its success on entrepreneurship fundamentals and innovation. Innovation was encouraged originally in an informal way by the founders, but was later formalized over a century into an organizational culture. The organizational culture is one which encourages innovation, and it has helped 3M to realize success over the years as it was perpetuating itself. Actually this specific culture of 3M’s evolved from the place of origin which was called ‘Minnesota Nice’. It is described as a non-political, low ego, egalitarian and non-hierarchical, hardworking and self-critical. 4. Why has 3M been such a successful innovator for so long? 3M’s success in innovation can be traced back to their employee appraisal. This is because; the organization has found the missing link which numerous organizations tend to overlook when it comes to showing appreciation towards employee’s efforts. 3M is achievement oriented and achievement particularly through research was rewarded through promotion. For instance, successful new product teams were spun off to form a new division in the organization. The leader of the team is often the general manager of the new division and this w as seen as a great motivator. Lesser achievements were also rewarded and failure is not punishable. This increase in 3M employees’ motivation level has been the key to their long term success as their staffs continually give out their best for the organizational success. 5. Can other companies just copy 3M’s structures and culture and become successful innovators also? It is very popular among firms to copy the other firms’ ideas if these other firms are especially profitable. It can be said that if properly copied, organizations that copy 3M’s strategies and culture can be successful innovators as because, 3M’s culture generally employee appraisal and in business psychology. It can be said that the appraisal has been rated high as increasing employee’s motivation level and enhancing organizational success.

Cognitive orientation to learning Essay

While the behavioural orientation dwelt on the environment, the cognitive one looked at the learner’s mental process; it is concerned with cognition, which is the process of knowing. It recognises the importance of the environment while at the same time exploring changes in the inner cognitive organization. James Hartley (1998) identified some important principles of learning related to cognitive psychology. The principles identified are as follows: proper organisation of instruction, clear structure of instruction, use of perceptual features of the task, importance of prior knowledge of the subject, the view that differences between individuals affect learning, and use of cognitive feedback to inform the learners about their failure or success. Humanistic orientation to learning This orientation was developed in the 1970s and 80s, and concerns itself mainly with the human potential for growth. Learning is seen as a form of self actualisation, contributing to psychological health (Caffalerra, 1991). Although self-actualization is perceived as the principal goal, other goals related to other stages are also present, including accomplishment of impulses (Maslow, 1970). The best insight into the humanistic orientation to learning was done by Carl Rodgers (2003), who stressed on education with the whole person and with their experiences, intellect and feelings. Some of the important elements involved in experimental or significant learning are as follows. It involves personal involvement, it is self-initiated, pervasive, evaluated by the learner and its essence is meaning. Social orientation to learning According to this orientation, people learn by observation of others in a social setting (Merriam and Caffarella, 1991). However, observation does not allow the learners to see the outcome of the other people’s behaviour in order to have some idea of what might happen when one acts in a certain way. This orientation concentrates on attending to behaviour and rehearsing on how it might work in various situations. In this model, behaviour is as a result of the interaction of the learner with the environment. Instead of looking at learning as acquiring some forms of knowledge, this model also incorporates social relationships, which are situations of joint participation. According to Tenant (1977), this model has the advantage of paying attention to the need of understanding knowledge and learning in context. The model is limited by the fact that learning that is unrelated to the life situation or context. Moreover, situations can arise where the community of practice has power relationships exhibiting participation and entry (Wenger, 1999). Part Two Learning and development supports and enhances organisational development Any form of learning, training and development is aimed at improving the learners as well as their performance, leading to organisational development. Organisational development is not just concerned with sending people to course to get trained. On the contrary, it is about encouraging people to examine and challenge any assumptions acting as a filter for learning. Learning is usually motivated by the need to arrive at solutions to problems, whether one wants to move away from a particular state; such as conflict, lack of team collaboration and lack of skill, or wants to achieve greater satisfaction personally or within an organisational setting. Learning has been described by organisations as the only competitive advantage that any organisation may have, since it responds to the ever unpredictable and dynamic business environment. Learning in organisations enables the organisations to make proper use of the immense mental capacity of its members, creating the type of process needed to improve it (Dixon, 1994). An organization that encourages its members to learn eventually ends up improving and transforming itself for the better. Moreover, organisations where their members continuously expand their capacity in creating the outcomes they really desire, where fresh and wider thinking patterns are nurtured; where joint aspirations are set free and people learn together develop greatly. For an organization to have sustainable development, it must be adaptive to its external environment, continually enhance its capacity to adapt, develop individual and joint learning, and use learning to attain even better results. The learning organisation There is a growing interest in organizations to develop a learning culture within themselves in order to improve their existing products and services and for innovation purposes. This has led to a number of initiatives such as Total Quality Management, TQM and Business Process Reengineering, BPR. Companies have come to the realisation that their success or failure greatly depends on human factors such as organisational culture, attitudes and skills. It also appears that the implementation of organizational programs is geared to highly specified procedures that are defined for foreseen situations. These organisations have further recognised that any initiatives do not usually work by themselves and something extra is required. This is in order to cope with quick and unanticipated changes where existing programmed responses are not adequate in order to provide the necessary flexibility to deal with dynamically changing conditions, and allow top management to respond with initiatives based on customer needs as opposed to being limited by business processes established for different situations. Organisations have increasingly had to among other things develop capacities for the fast-paced innovation to develop capacity and learn to appreciate change. As the competitive atmosphere becomes increasingly variegate and complex, these organisations have seen the need for greater genetic variety; a wider variety of managerial thinking, and a more enhanced repertoire of management actions. Top and successful organisations have reached such heights by organising around people and honouring the need to recognition, lifelong learning, challenge, something to believe in and a feeling of control. With the pace of change ever getting faster, organisations have seen the need for developing mechanisms to help in innovation and continuous learning better than ever before (Dixon, 1994). Learning in an organisation is about development of higher levels of skills and knowledge as opposed to more training, and is classified into four levels. The first level involves learning of facts, procedures, processes and knowledge and mostly applies to known situations that have very minor changes. The second level entails learning new job skills that can be transferred to other situations (Easterby-Smith et al, 1999). This is often applicable to situations whose existing responses need changing. Outside experts can be very useful at this stage since they bring in fresh expertise and skills that may have been lacking initially (Dixon, 1994). The third level is all about learning to adapt, and is often applicable to more dynamic circumstances where solutions need development. Here, the mode of learning is experimenting and deriving lessons from past failures and successes (Easterby-Smith et al, 1999). Finally, the fourth level is learning to learn, which involves creativity and innovation; design of the future as opposed to just adapting to it. Here, knowledge is reframed and all assumptions challenged. Additionally, the model is applicable at various levels that include learning of individuals, organisations and teams. Organisations achieving learning level four will not only reinvent their organization but also their entire industry (Easterby-Smith et al, 1999). Conclusion Learning greatly helps in improving both individual and organizational innovativeness and efficiency. There are numerous learning models applicable to various situations, all of which have their unique advantages and disadvantages. The adoption of a particular learning model entirely depends on the prevailing conditions. Organisations are striving to continually improve their performance as well as the quality of their products and services. From the analysis above, it is evident that indeed learning and development supports and enhances organisational development. References Bruner, J (1977) The Process of Education, Harvard University Press, CambridgeDixon, N (1994) The Organizational Learning Cycle, McGraw-Hill Easterby-Smith, M et al (1999) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization-Developments in Theory and Practice, Sage Hartley, J (1998) Learning and Studying-A research perspective, Routledge, London Maslow, A (1970) Motivation and Personality 2nd edition, Harper and Row, New York Merriam, S and Caffarella (1998) Learning in Adulthood, A comprehensive guide, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Rogers, C and Freiberg, H (2003) Freedom to Learn, Merrill, New York

Trafficking in Illegal Drugs and Persons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Trafficking in Illegal Drugs and Persons - Essay Example However, in the foreign policy moves, President offers to frame strategies taking into confidence Canada, Iran and France for implementing his policies to control drug and human trafficking and at the same time expanding his foreign strategies to curtail global terrorism in all its dimensions. However before that as an advisor to the President, I need to identity the ways with which Canada, Iran and France frame laws to identify, adjudicate and sentence these international criminals and put the same into practice. According to the law in Canada, drug trafficking is a very serious offense subjecting the criminals into prison. However at the same time length of the prison also depends upon the intensity of the crime and kind and quantity of substance found in the possession of the offenders. According to the Criminal Code of Canada, criminals get lighter punishment for those who have been found in the possession of the marijuana, amphetamines, hashish, and LSD. Punishment and the impos ition of the fines depend upon the quantum and nature of drug caught by the offender which can go from six months to five years and even life imprisonment and fine from $1000 to $5000 (Jourard, n.d.). Canada has defined specific laws pertaining to the human trafficking involving extortion, kidnapping, conspiracy, prostitution, forced confinement, or other organized criminal acts that involve moving of one person or groups illegally on the Canadian land for criminal acts. Besides, Parliament also formulated the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) and Section 118 of this law was initiated on 28the June 2002 which states that no person or persons are allowed to enter into Canada through illegal means like commitment of forgery, deceiving someone, kidnapping, or forceful pressurizing. It also includes persons who help these criminals by providing transportation, or by recruiting or sheltering them. These people if caught are liable to be punished for life imprisonment or fine to the amount of $1,000,000, or both. On 25th November 2005, these measures were made more stringent through passing of the Criminal Code curtailing trafficking and also preventing the people who are i nvolved in the obliteration or destruction of the identity, forging travel documents to help trafficking and abetting criminals to accomplish their nefarious designs. Even the federal Interdepartmental Working Group on Trafficking in Persons (IWGTIP), under the co-chairmanship of Justice and Foreign Affairs, also assists in the activities to solve the trafficking problems (Raaflaub, 2006). The graver of these two is the terrorism problem for which soon after the terrorists attack on the World Trade Center, Canadian government initiated plans to control any kind of terrorist activities. $280 million had been spent by the Canadian government in its immediate initiatives to strengthen law enforcement agencies with the main emphasis on quick tracing of fraud-resistant Permanent Resident Card for new immigrants, provision of security for the refugees, quick detention process and deportation, recruiting of highly skilled and trained staff to increase the power of security at the ports, up gradation of the technology, equipments and making all the

Criticism on the Metamorphosis and analyze on Metamorphosis - Kafka Research Proposal

Criticism on the Metamorphosis and analyze on Metamorphosis - Kafka - Research Proposal Example Yet, Kafka’s message is deeper. He seems not to desire Gregor’s salvation from death, but his death from the society should serve as salvation. Gregor’s condition may seem similar to the condition of those dying from mortal diseases. The very beginning of the story indicates to such a point of view. â€Å"One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin†. It is easy to imagine a person who once learns an awful diagnosis of his and informs his family of it. As he wakes up in the morning he finds out that his family’s attitude to him has changed entirely. Now Gregor is not able to earn his old parents and small sister’s living, and this is the only question which really troubles him. However, his family is frightened and feels disgust. His parents do not even want to hear of him or see him. Only his younger sister, whose head is full of romantic images, â€Å"sacrifices† herself caring of her sick brother. However, Grete stops perceiving her elder brother as a human being. She is squeamish about touching his personal thi ngs and hurries to the window to open it and air the room, as if it is filled with poison. Grete avoids looking at her brother and doesn’t address him. Gregor’s mother faints at Gregor’s sight. Gregor’s father feels such disgust that even injures his son â€Å"protecting† himself from the sick. Mr. Samsa doesn’t allow Gregor to leave the room. The whole family perceives Gregor’s condition as shame. At first the family tries not to treat Gregor as an enemy, while â€Å"family duty required the suppression of disgust and the exercise of patience, nothing but patience†. However, after the three gentlemen deny paying rent on the pretence of having shared the apartment with such a monster, even Grete bursts out, exclaiming – â€Å"We must try to get rid of it!†, – and Mrs. Samsa entirely

Community studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Community studies - Essay Example Hence, the need for housing effectively creates an urban sprawl since the urban areas start spreading out and overrunning the underdeveloped areas and the rural communities. There is a realization that the pattern characterized by the urban sprawl is not sustainable for the future needs of the nation. In effect, the current patterns in development are moving towards ensuring that the consequences of urban sprawl do not affect the populace. One such current pattern of development is urban growth boundaries. In this case, the urban growth boundary is an official line separating the urban areas from its surrounding open greenbelt lands (â€Å"Urban Sprawl†, personal communication, n.d.). These lands include the parks, farms, and the watersheds. In effect, such a boundary is beneficial to the natural environment and maintains the flora and fauna without interfering with it. In addition, protection of farmlands ensures that the residents generally benefit by sustaining production. Another current development pattern meant to reduce the effects of the urban sprawl is new urbanism. This concept’s core principals are enhancing walkability, de-emphasizing the car, and creating some sort of a mix of services within a neighborhood (â€Å"New Urbanism†, personal communication, n.d.). In this case, bringing services to a walking distance within a residential area ensures that every individual resident benefits from the independence of movement. In addition, a reduction in the number and length of automobile trips minimizes traffic congestion, road maintenance expenses, and most importantly less pollution. Thus, the residents will benefit from the clean environment while there is channeling of public funds, saved from road maintenance, to other important areas of development. In addition, creating a mix of buildings enhances and facilitates evolution of the

Legal issues in criminal procedure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Legal issues in criminal procedure - Essay Example The fourth amendment defines a search as a substantive breach of personal right of privacy. Further, application of technology to advance police activities with respect to search have been considered as searches. This was held in the case of Kyllo v United States. Use of police dog for detection is also considered as a search unless the dog sniffs from a far distance. The use of a police dog can, therefore, be considered as a technological act to constitute a search.The general rule is that searches are supposed to be made after a warrant has been issued by a court. There are, however, exemptions to this rule and the police can legally search a personal vehicle without a warrant. Such exemptions include â€Å"searches with consent, special need beyond law, exigent circumstances, stop and frisk and motor vehicle† searches. All these exemptions allow the police to make a legal search on Tom’s vehicle. There was, for example, an initial consent, by the suspects, for the se arch. Further, the actual detection of a suspicious material in the car trunk was an instant event. The police can also argue that it was a stop and frisk exercise since the car driver behaved suspiciously in a deserted area. The law also allows the police to make searches on vehicles on transit. Based on these arguments, the court is likely to uphold the search as legal. Under this principle, the law provides that a suspect’s immediate environment can be searched to prevent the suspect from obtaining and possibly interfering with evidence.

Reflection of my profit and ethics coursework Essay

Reflection of my profit and ethics coursework - Essay Example As the a starting point, the module topic on learning styles gave me an understanding of my personal learning style and technique. Before undertaking the module, I was not aware that each person possessed different learning styles. However, the topic on learning styles helped me to identify my dominant style of learning. To this end, I identified linguistic, logical, interpersonal and intrapersonal learning styles as my core strengths. In effect, these learning styles proved essential in my profit and ethics coursework. Foremost, the profit, and ethics coursework was a controversial module that sought to establish the efficacy of business and corporate social responsibility co-existing in harmony. Bearing this in mind, I discovered that my understanding of the topic would require an inquisitive interpersonal learning style with my course mates. Particularly when discussing the proponent and opponents of ethical responsibility of business, the sentiments advanced by my colleagues were hepful in the to synthesis and formulation of a personal premise on the issue. Evidently, the profit and ethics assignment entailed a research on whether the goal of profit and ethics can co-exist in a business. This assignment was in reflection to the ongoing dispute between UK dairy farmers with the processors and large chain supermarkets over fair pricing. Consequently, I was able to tap in on the intrapersonal learning style through personal research on articles that presented both sides of the issue from the dairy farmers, milk processors and supermarkets perspectives. After a thorough and analytical understanding of the issue, I commenced to present my premise for the case for ethical responsibility through fair pricing by the milk processors and supermarkets. Consequently, I incorporated the logical learning style based on evidence and intellectual reasoning. Throughout the text, my logical reasoning was based on the precinct that ethical responsibility

Hazardous Noise Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hazardous Noise Case Study - Essay Example The exposure period for the employees is 8 hours per day. The frequency of exposure and duration of exposure to the hazard is high. The TWA for noise for the employees was found to be between 88 Db(A) to 97 Db(A) which are above the recommended levels an indication of the severity of its consequences. 1. Elimination- This includes looking for ways of eliminating the hazard in order to reduce any risk occurrence. Elimination reduces risks exposures to acceptable levels. The original risk highly critical and frequent. 2. Warnings- This will involve the use of alerting and warning techniques and hazard warning labels. These control measures are lower order controls that reduce risk exposures to acceptable levels (Manuele, 2011). The original risk highly catastrophic and frequent. 3. Administrative controls- This will include the application of safeguards and installation of ventilation systems. Other administrative controls include training of the employees as well as safe working procedures. The original risk highly catastrophic and probable. 4. Personal protective equipment- It involves the incorporation of safety devices for use by the employees. This reduces risk exposures to the employees. The original risk highly catastrophic and probable. 5. Engineering controls- Engineering controls will include the use of safeguarding technology to safeguard the employees from any hazard (Manuele, 2011). The original risk highly catastrophic and occasional. 6. Substitution of less hazardous processes, materials, equipment or operation- Substituting hazardous processes or methods with less hazardous one is a control measure. This leads to a substitution of a risky and hazardous process with a less risky and hazardous one. Substitution leads to the attainment of a tolerable level of risk. The original risk highly catastrophic and frequent. The shop seems to be at a high risk exposure and

Richter case - Infrastructure Essay Example for Free

Richter case Infrastructure Essay Looking at the current (2007) IT governance of Richter, Szà ¼cs is the IT director and is working together with around 50 people in the head department in Hungary. Those 50 people are focusing on four different areas: â€Å"IT operations (12), procurement and service (15), SAP support (12), IT strategy and projects (4)† (Mitchell et al., 2007). Altogether they develop a strategic plan which is expected to support the business processes at Richter. However, a plan is not very flexible since it first has to be approved by the CFO of Richter and then still has to be agreed on by the senior management. This process though takes place only once a year, namely each year in June. But there is not only the headquarter of Richter in Hungary but different affiliates all over the world (e.g. Poland, India, Russia, Romania). Those affiliates have their own IT departments and IT directors. Major important infrastructure/IT decisions and decisions regarding the SAP modules have to be coordinated and discussed with Szà ¼cs and the head office in Hungary. If the affiliates develop a plan they have to present them like Szà ¼cs but to their respective CEOs. This structure shows the level of importance of IT to Richter and has some strengths as well as weaknesses. As mentioned above IT has more of a supporting role for Richter’s business processes and there are IT directors who develop plans with a team of different specialists but cannot implement them by themselves. Looking at Broadbent and Weill (1997), Richter has a dependent infrastructure view. Their IT as a percent of expenses are around the average relative to its competitors and they also want to achieve cost savings but still be relatively flexible. This has the advantage of staying competitive without that much risk. Due to top management requiring to approve the plans developed by the IT director they can evaluate the cost and risk exactly. However, since top management might not have the best IT knowledge it could happen that they do not approve a plan because they think it is too expensive and risky. But if they would have enough IT understanding they might see the value this plan will add to the company. Also, the meetings are just once a year which let them lose some flexibility. Another infrastructure view is the enabling view. Having this view, Richter would have much higher IT expenses and their IT infrastructure would always  be on the edge. This view has its strengths and weaknesses as well: They would be a lot more flexible and management of IT would probably be different. The IT directors would not have to get approval by the CFO and top management but rather work together with them looking for opportunities to be innovative and get a competitive advantage for some time. This view has its downsides, though: Investing much money and being the first to invest in something new is always connected with a lot of risk. Also, if the affiliates would be allowed to decide everything on their own failures might be discovered too late and increase the loss. Yet, another view is the utility view with which the firm has low IT expenses and focuses on cost savings. IT is clearly used as a supporting tool. The IT director (if there even is one) gets told what is needed and just tries to find the most cost-saving solution. The firm has low risk since it does not invest much money but is not very innovative and maybe loses some profits because it probably imitates competitors later on.

Blue Duck Essay Example for Free

Blue Duck Essay This report is made on the objective of executing a strategic analysis and evaluation of Blue Duck Shearling in order to be able to answer the following problem statement: â€Å"How could Blue Duck increase their consumer based brand equity (CBBE) by improving their social media appearance?† In order to answer the question an assessment of Blue Duck’s marketing strategy and implementation of the strategy was carried through. It focused on the Blue Duck’s social media marketing strategy and it led to giving suggestions how to improve their current approach with the aim of improving Blue Duck’s consumer based brand equity. In order to find out the industry leading trends in Social Media Marketing there were examined reports and statistics about the leading tendencies and developments in social media marketing. Blue Duck is a premium high-end shearling outerwear manufacturer. They design, manufacture and distribute high quality shearling and fur-trimmed and fur-lined coats in addition accessories for men and women. All the coats are produced in their New York based showroom in the fashion district. The analysis of the company’s current situation was carried through examination of Blue Duck’s positioning strategy. It included forming a perceptual map about Blue Duck and its competitors as well analyzing the competitors’ online appearances. The evaluation showed that the main advantage of Blue Duck is to carry on improving and implementing their social media strategy, as the competitors seems to lack in terms of social media marketing. As well there was carried out a comparison by analyzing the points of parity and points of difference concerning the competitors. The examination showed that compared with the main competitors Blue Duck lacks trendiness. Nevertheless Blue Duck seemed to have the strongest social media marketing strategy that they could benefit from. In addition, to analyze the company’s strengths and weaknesses, learn the growth possibilities and external threats there was carried out a SWOT analysis. It revealed that the main assets of the company are the quality and long experience in the shearling industry; still their weakness is the limited distribution channels. As they are strongly dependent on the weather, the global warming and climate change might affect their business as an external threat for the company. In order to assess Blue Duck’s current marketing strategy there is examined the Integrated Marketing Communication practices carried out by the company. As well there is analyzed the company’s current social media marketing strategy in particular. According to the findings Blue Duck concentrates on online marketing and in addition to that they do a bit of print advertisement. Lately Blue Duck has been focusing on the social media marketing, as it is one of the fastest developing forms of marketing. The main focus of Blue Duck’s social media activities is to increase brand awareness and the goal is to build online audience and a strong online community. Thus far they have slowly been moving towards their goal and objectives. Still they could benefit from some adjustments in their strategy to get faster results. To evaluate the current customer based brand equity there were carried out interviews with 3 people from the target group. Based on the answers there was formed a CBBE pyramid. It appeared that the overall customer perception matches brand’s own positioning statement, though 2 out of 3 interviewees noted that Blue Duck lacks trendiness. The recommendations for the future to Blue Duck would be to keep on developing their social media strategy and making adjustments to it according to the needs. Still as the brand image is inclined to be outdated and old fashioned they should consider improving their design aesthetics and producing trendier designs as well. Fruthermore Blue Duck should pay more attention to Pinterest as it is a growing platform. In addition Blue Duck should consider inserting a product reviewing and rating to tool to their website as it might appeal for their target group. Following these suggestions Blue Duck will increase their customer based brand equity and will succeed in building a stronger online community. Introduction The aim of this report is to examine an American shearling outerwear manufacturer Blue Duck’s online appearance and give suggestions for their social media marketing strategy. Blue Duck is a small company that serves the needs of United States shearling market. It is one of the main manufacturers of luxury shearling in the US. As their core product is shearling outerwear the active business season for them is from October till March the following year. During the summer season they mainly deal with the product development and design of the next season’s collection. As the winter of 2011 and 2012 was rather warm, the business suffered and the sales volume declined. In the summer of 2012 Blue Duck decided to develop a new marketing plan and they hired branding agency Art Zulu to help building a social media marketing strategy. The main aim of the new approach was to increase brand awareness and build a strong online community. This report will be assessing and analyzing the implementation of the strategy and in the end gives suggestions according to the findings. Problem Statement To assess the possibilities of increased brand awareness following problem was formulated: How could Blue Duck increase their customer based brand equity (CBBE) by improving their social media appearance? To analyze the social media marketing trends in fashion industry the following sub-question was formed. 1.What are the leading social media trends in the USA fashion industry? Secondly to assess the company’s current situation and their strongest assets to rely on while building the social media presence following sub-question came up: 2.What are the key assets of the Blue Duck’s present customer based brand equity that the company should rely on while building social media presence? In addition to propose the strategy and implementation for Blue Duck following sub-question was formed: 3.What strategy should Blue Duck use in order to build a strong on-line presence? Finally, to find out which social media platforms and technologies to use in order to implement the strategy the following sub-question was formed: 4.What technologies and social media platforms should Blue Duck use in order to target their potential customers? Delimitation Market This report will analyze the social media marketing trends and the possibilities for Blue Duck to improve their customer based brand equity on their current target market. As well the report will be focusing on how Blue Duck could expand their target group and appeal to a younger market segment and give suggestions based on the research and analysis of the company’s current brand equity. Due to lack of consumer primary consumer data the CBBE matrix will not be as objective as it could be. Geographical Area As Blue Duck operates locally the report will be based on the United States market, with a special focus on New York area. Time Frame The report will be based on the on going financial year of 2012 as Blue Duck is going through development of new branding and marketing strategies. Finance The report will not be focusing on marketing budget and the financial situation of the company. Methodology This report will be based on primary and secondary research method. The primary data will be based on the information acquired directly from Blue Duck. To find out the latest social media marketing trends the report will be analyzing several marketing industry reports about the current tendencies. To analyze Blue Duck’s current situation and strategies and find the possibilities for improvements there will be used different branding and marketing analyzing methods such as CBBE matrix, PoDs/PoPs, SWOT and perceptual mapping. To evaluate Blue Duck’s customer based brand equity there will be interviewed 2-3 subjects from the company’s target group in order to get a little overview of the consumers’ perspective concerning Blue Duck. Due to the few examinees interviewed the results and consumer perception of the brand is rather subjective, still it gives a little impression about the brand equity. In the end based on the findings of the study the report will give suggestions and recommendations about Blue Duck’s social media strategy by following Bernoff’s four-step social strategy called the POST method. It will start with concluding the targeted PEOPLE’s social activities. Then it will evaluate the OBJECTIVES to decide what Blue Duck wants to accomplish. That will follow to the STRATEGY – the planning of how the relationship with the customer will change. To sum up the report will come up with the TECHNOLOGIES that Blue Duck should use in order to implement its strategy. (Bernoff Li, 2008) Social Media Trends Today companies are confronted with the raising influence of new communication channels. It is completely transforming the marketing field, as it has existed for 100 years now. The traditional ways of marketing are increasingly influenced and integrated with social media. Nevertheless mainstream medias will still be vital, but will be strongly influenced by the newcomers. (Gillin 2008) Top Social Media Marketers note that Social Media Marketing is disappearing in the means of a separate media. That implies that Social Media Marketing is becoming one of the marketing tools and it will not be a separate activity, but an integral part of marketing. (Dreamgrow 2012) In the last decade and in particular the last 4 years there has been radical changes how people consume and search for information. A part from getting the information from the direct source such as traditional institutions like corporations, people have started using technologies to get things they need from each other (Bernoff Li 2008). It is called the Groundswell. This trend can be very beneficial for the companies, if they set their strategies right, or it can be great threat for a company’s image if the Groundswell movement is disregarded. Following will point out the main trends that will affect Blue Duck and the fashion industry in general in the United States. Rise of Social Media Marketing In a survey of 700 marketers, Wildfire App discovered that nearly all marketers find value in Social Media Marketing and over 75% of them were planning to increase their Social Media Marketing budget. The main benefits noted by the marketers were the increased brand awareness and direct interaction with the customers. Furthermore Social Media Marketing efforts seemed to increase sales and reduce marketing spending. More businesses are investing in Social Media. According to Borrell Associates, small- and medium-sized businesses in USA doubled their social media advertising budgets in 2012. State of Social Media Marketing study by Awareness Networks found that 70% of businesses planned to expand their presents on social media platforms. (Mershon, 2012) Social Media as a Customer Service Tool For the past ten years companies have been directing their clients to their websites for supporting information instead of having them call to the expensive support line. As one part of the groundswell, companies can benefit from using their Social Media platforms for offering customer support. By doing that they build loyalty and might cut costs on customer support activities such as support calls. Today customers are able to contact the company in real time through social media networks. When a person can easily interact with the company on Facebook for example, it increases trust. People can rely on the company. Furthermore customers get help from each other as well by commenting each other’s posts and communicating online. This will save a lot on company’s customer support expenses if the customers are able to help themselves. On top it will facilitate the communication for the customers. (Bernoff Li, 2008) Social Sales As users have access to unlimited amounts of information online, consumers identify trust as a key factor for finding valuable solutions. Consumers will not even enter the purchase funnel if certain trust elements are not triggered (About.com, 2012). People are used to getting recommendations from their friends and family, but now social media integration will allow customers to get real user reviews and ratings about products straight on the product pages. People will be more encouraged to purchase a product if it has positive reviews from customers who already purchased it. At the same time brands have to be careful and make the reviewing process as transparent as possible by revealing negative reviews as well to make it trustworthy. In that way people get the most objective overviews. A study has shown that reviews seem to build more trust than â€Å"likes†. 50% of the consumer say that a brand having a lot of good reviews and a few negative ones adds trust, at the same time only 26% of consumers find that having a lot of â€Å"likes† adds trust. Consumers seem to get confused about the origin of â€Å"likes† so they prefer reviews from people who have already purchased the product (About.com, 2012). Social Media ROI While there has been a lot of controversy about Social Media ROI and if it could be measured, marketers seem to start evaluating the importance of measuring the outcome of their social media efforts. However less than half of the businesses measure their results. Lack of monitoring might lead to waste of investment as companies are increasing their spending on social media. This again will be indicated by the poor ROI. By monitoring the results it makes it easier to adjust the strategy and change over to more efficient ways of social media marketing. Pinterest as an Ecommerce Site Lately the new Internet bookmarking site Pinterest has exploded. Based on industry reports, Pinterest is becoming the most significant driver of social traffic to eCommerce sites, even outperforming the more mature social media giants as Twitter and Facebook. Lately many online retailers are integrating Pinterest to their product pages. In that way the consumer is able to pin the things they like on their inspirational boards. Amazon has added pin button to every product. The evidence that Pinterest is skyrocketing is clear considering the reports. In Q2 in 2012, referral traffic from Pinterest rose 2,535 percent year over year while at the same time referral traffic from Facebook is up 2,7 percent. On top of everything the traffic driven on Pinterest is free. Companies ought to pay a lot of attention on Pinterest as it can be a great traffic driver besides email campaigns and search engines. (Duryee, 2012) Tabletizing and Mobilizing Websites In connection with the new technologies and portable devices companies have to start conforming their online present. More than half social networking sites’ usage will be on mobile devices. As more people use smartphones and tablets, the companies have to adapt their websites for mobile use. People are getting used to sharing content on the go, no matter where they are. Brands as Entertainers As companies move on to Social Networks such as Facebook and Twitter they have to learn how to engage and entertain their customer that they will not loose interest in the brand page. On social media networks brands have to be aware that the branding and marketing messages displayed on the page will not get annoying and people will not perceive them as spam. As case studies have shown the most successful social brands have a subtle branding and marketing approach. They offer their audience everyday entertainment and news, while occasionally interposing brand messages to keep the brand on top of the mind. Every message that a brand posts on their Facebook does not have to be related to the brand. This leads to the following social media trend. Online News Will Become More Social It has been forecasted that in the near future applications integrated with social media will gradually replace online news websites. People will get their daily news straight on their Facebook news feed for example. As well the people who are reading/sharing/tweeting the news will decide which news are the most popular and there wise the trending stories appear on their friends newsfeed. It is the consumer who decides what will be read. News Brought to Us by Ourselves For example on many news-broadcast channels the audience can speak up through Twitter and interact with the live news show. Furthermore during live debates there is the possibility for the audience to vote and express their support through Twitter. In some cases of live TV the audience is the main influencer of the course of the show. Twitter has become sort of a live broadcast channel itself. During the Spring-Summer 2013 fashion weeks in the fashion capitals in September the tweets and pictures from people at the shows gave a good overview of what was going on for their followers. People are getting more involved in being distributors of information and news. It is not only the responsibility of the press to be the prime distributors of information any more – it is the consumer. Conclusion Concerning the latest trends mentioned above Blue Duck has to take a lot into consideration while building their online presence. Blue Duck must be sure that their social media profiles interact with the consumer and that the conversation taking place there is not unanswered. Furthermore in connection with new technologies and platforms Blue Duck has to indicate the ones that their target group is the most involved in and take them into focus while developing a social media strategy. For example Pinterest is a great bookmarking tool for women concerning home and lifestyle subjects. It is appealing for them to take inspiration from other people all over the world and make pin-boards with great ideas and products. Finally Blue Duck has to make sure that their social media pages are entertaining and provide interesting content for their customers, so that they will not loose interest in the brand and keep it on top of their mind.

Distal Symmetrical Neuropathy (DPN)

Distal Symmetrical Neuropathy (DPN) Abstract The most common complication of diabetes, distal symmetrical neuropathy (DPN), decreases quality of life and causes disability. Therefore, it hasa significant impact on social and economic aspects. Unfortunately, the treatment of this condition remains challenging because, apart from improving glycaemic control, there are currently no pathogenetic drugs that meet the requirement set by US regulation. This is not necessarily due to a lack of therapeutic potential, but because the endpoints were not robust enough to detect the therapeutic benefit. This essay will address several acknowledged surrogate endpoints (SE) for DPN. Corneal confocal microscopy will also be reviewed as a potential SE for DPN. Introduction Neuropathy, a common long-term complication of diabetes, is associated with the progressive loss of nerve fibres affecting both the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.1 The most common type of diabetic neuropathy is DPN, of which manifestation may vary from painful sensations to foot insensitivity at risk of ulceration.2 In an attempt to treat DPN, clinicians use symptomatic drugs such as tricyclic antidepressants, anticonvulsants, opioids, and opioid-like agents that alleviate painful symptoms in the lower limbs.3 These drugs, however, do not affect the underlying cause of the disease, which is believed to be progressive loss of nerve fibres. Drugs that target putative pathogenesis of the disease, therefore, may become great alternatives. There are currently two main experimental drugs that belong to this group: namely, antioxidant ÃŽ ±-lipoic acid4 and aldose-reductase inhibitor epalrestat.5 However, although theyhave been approved in a limited number of countries, they fail to demonstrate sufficient efficacy to be approved by US regulation. This has raised a question about the reason behind this problem. Poorly designed trials, slow progression of the disease, relatively short duration of the trials, strong placebo effect, and endpoints selection are amongst the factors proposed behind this problem.6The latter factor is of particular interest because some of the current surrogate endpoints for DPN assessment may be subjective due to reliance on the patient’s response. Further discussion of SE for DPN will be reviewed below. Surrogate endpoints for DPN The endpoints used in clinical trialsare variable to evaluate the changes in patient condition after they have been given certain treatment. The ideal endpoints should be clinically meaningful and directly measure how the patients feel, function, and survive.7 However, it is difficult in some cases to apply them in clinical trials due to subjectivity or measurement difficulty. Moreover, the clinical trials have to be conducted overa very long periodto measure these ideal endpoints. To solve this problem, the researchers use the surrogate endpoints which define any laboratory measures, signs or symptomsthat are intended to be used as substitutes for clinically meaningful endpoints.7 Therefore, any changes in the surrogate endpoints induced by treatment are expected to reflect the changes in the clinically meaningful endpoints. In the case of DPN, several endpoints have been used to diagnose and evaluate progression or severity of the disease, including clinical assessment, electrophysiology, quantitative sensory testing (QST),8 sympathetic skin response (SSR),9 quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART),9, 10 autonomic testing, nerve/skin biopsy,11-13 and corneal confocal microscopy (CCM).14 Clinical assessment of DPN involves assessing the severity of the patients’ symptoms and neurological examination. Most components of this examination rely on patients’ responses and the physicians’ experiences; therefore it has poor reproducibility and marked variation in inter-observer agreement.Dyck15 tried to overcome this problem by developing composite scores that assess the symptoms and signs of DPN. The neuropathy symptom score (NSS) was developed to assess the symptoms, whereas the neuropathy disability score (NDS) was devised as a quantified neurological examination.15 Later, NDS was replaced by the neuropathy impairment score (NIS).16 However, these scores still have a certain degree of subjectivity, meaning the evaluation of disease severity may be biased. An electrophysiology study measures the electrical conduction along the nerve fibres to evaluate their function. As a surrogate endpoint, it has been criticised due to the need for special equipment and a trained examiner.17 Moreover, there is evidence that it only assesses the function of large fibres,18 yet the earliest fibres affected by diabetes aresmall unmyelinated fibres.12 QST, on the other hand, evaluates both large (A-beta) and small (A-delta and C) nerve fibres. It measures sensory response after the application of accurately calibrated sensory (mechanical and thermal) stimuli.8 However, it has been criticised because it is subjective (based on patient response) and thus cannot differentiate between fake or real response. Due to this reason, QST results are not recommended to be the sole criteria to diagnose DPN. The combination of composite score, electrophysiology, and QST offers a relatively robust tool to define neuropathic severity but fails to detect the earliest sta ge of nerve damage that happens in small unmyelinated fibres.19 The somatic nerve disturbances due to diabetes are usually accompanied by vasomotor or sudomotor changes that suggest autonomic involvement. QSART examines the sudomotor changes in neuropathic patients by measuring sweat volume produced by skin after chemical10 or electrical stimulation.20 QSART is considered as a robust endpoint for DPN because it is quite sensitive, objective, and reproducible.9, 20 It has been shown to be able to detect C-fibres involvement in DPN patients who have otherwise normal neurological examinations and nerve-conduction studies.10 However, it requires special equipment and needs a relatively long time to be carried out. These drawbacks limit the application of QSART in clinical trials, especially if a large number of subjects are required. Sural-nerve biopsies and skin biopsies directly assess the damage and repair of small nerve fibres and have been proposed to be surrogate endpoints in clinical trials.11, 12Both of these methods have been shown to be very sensitive in detecting regeneration or abnormality insmall nerve fibres. The quantification of intra-epidermal nerve-fibre density (IENFD) from a skin biopsy, for example, is shown to be more sensitive than QSART and QST in diagnosing DPN.13 Nevertheless, the invasive nature of these procedures may become a problem, especially for diabetic patients. To solve this problem, anon-invasive measurement needs to be developed. CCM offers a new approach to directly measure the severity of DPN through visualisation of the subbasal nerve plexus in Bowman’s layer of the cornea. The cornea is a highly innervated organ which contains dense A-delta and C-unmyelinated fibres. The question remains whether corneal innervation has a connection with neuropathy caused by diabetes. Recent evidence, however, shows that corneal sensation is impaired in both diabetic21 and galactose-fed rats.22Moreover, in diabetic patients the subclinical abnormalities of corneal innervations23 and corneal ulceration24 are commonly recognised. This is due to the progressive loss of corneal nerve fibres which in turn reduces the neurotrophic stimuli required to develop a healthy and thick corneal epithelium. In 2000, Rosenberg et al.25 found that corneal sensation and nerve-fibre number werereduced in patients with type I diabetes. Later, the degree of corneal-n erve-fibre loss was shown to correlate with the degree of DPN assessed by a combination of NDS, electrophysiology and QST.26 These suggest that diabetes may affect the corneal innervations and therefore it is possible to assess neuropathy through corneal-nerve-fibre evaluation. CCM assesses corneal nerve morphology by quantifying three different parameters: namely, corneal-nerve-fibre density (NFD), the total number of major fibres per square millimetre; nerve-branch density (NBD), the number of branches emanating from major nerve trunks per square millimetre; and nerve-fibre length (NFL), the total length of nerve fibres and branches per square millimetre.26Quattrini et al.14 provided further evidence that CCM parameters can be used to assess small-fibre damage in humans. Moreover, they found that CCM results correlated with IEFND, which was considered a robust tool to assess small-fibre damage. Later, a study in patients who underwent simultaneous kidney-and-pancreas transplantation showed that CCM was, in fact, more sensitive than IEFND to detect early nerve damage and regeneration.27 The role of CCM is not limited to evaluating the progression of disease;it can also be used to diagnose DPN and identify at-risk patients due to high sensitivity.28 These s uggest that CCM may be used as a tool to diagnose, identify at-risk patients, and evaluate nerve-fibre damage or repair. Recently, CCM has successfully detected corneal nerve damage which correlates with neuropathic measurements in several diseases other than diabetes, such as idiopathic small-fibre neuropathy,29 Fabry disease,30 and Charcott-Marie-Tooth type 1A disease.31The evidence so far shows that CCM may have the potential to be an ideal surrogate endpoint for DPN. It is sensitive, quantitative, highly reproducible, and noninvasive.32, 33However, more research is needed to establish a connection between CCM measurement and clinically meaningful endpoints which, in the case of DPN, are pain, disability, and the curtailment of quality of life. Conclusion Apart from the possibility that the tested drug may not yield the intended outcome, the failure to detect the effectiveness of experimental drugsmay, in case of DPN, be caused by improper selection of surrogate endpoints in clinical trials. There are currently several acknowledged surrogate endpoints for DPN, such as clinical assessment, electrophysiology, QST, QSART, SSR, monofilament test, nerve/skin biopsy, and autonomic testing.However, they have several drawbacks, such as being time consuming, subjective, and difficult to practice. Recently, CCM has emerged as a potential surrogate endpoint for DPN because it is non-invasive, highly reproducible, quantitative, and sensitive. However, more research is needed to establish its position as a game changer in neuropathy-outcome assessment.

The Rattler essay :: essays research papers

Commentary on  ¡Ã‚ °Rattler ¡Ã‚ ±   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The author ¡Ã‚ ¯s techniques in Rattler convey not only a feeling of sadness and remorse but also a sense of the man ¡Ã‚ ¯s acceptance of the snake ¡Ã‚ ¯s impending death. The reader can sense the purpose of the author ¡Ã‚ ¯s effective message through the usage of diction, imagery, and organization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The author uses diction in the passages to signify the effect of the author ¡Ã‚ ¯s meaning in story and often sway readers to interpret ideas in one way or another. The man in the story arrives to a  ¡Ã‚ °[dry] desert ¡Ã‚ ± where he accosts an animal with  ¡Ã‚ °long-range attack ¡Ã‚ ± and  ¡Ã‚ °powerful fangs. ¡Ã‚ ± The author creates a perilous scene between the human and animal in order to show that satisfaction does not come from taking lives. With instincts of silence and distrust, both of them freeze in stillness like  ¡Ã‚ °live wire. ¡Ã‚ ± In addition, the man is brought to the point where animal ¡Ã‚ ¯s  ¡Ã‚ °tail twitched, ¡Ã‚ ± and  ¡Ã‚ °the little tocsin sounded ¡Ã‚ ± and also he hears the  ¡Ã‚ °little song of death. ¡Ã‚ ± With violence ready to occur, the man tries to protect himself and others with a hoe, for his and their safety from the Rattler. The author criticizes how humans should be  ¡Ã‚ °obliged not to kill ¡Ã ‚ ±, at least himself, as a human. The author portrays the story with diction and other important techniques, such as imagery, in order to influence the readers with his significant lesson.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The effect the reader perceives in the passage of Rattler is attained from the usage of the author ¡Ã‚ ¯s imagery. The author describes the pre-action of the battle between the man and the snake as a  ¡Ã‚ °furious signal, quite sportingly warning [the man] that [he] had made an unprovoked attack, attempted to take [the snake ¡Ã‚ ¯s] life...  ¡Ã‚ ± The warning signal is portrayed in order to reveal the significance of both the man ¡Ã‚ ¯s and the snake ¡Ã‚ ¯s value of life. The author sets an image of how one of their lives must end in order to keep the world in peace. In addition, the author describes how  ¡Ã‚ °there was blood in [snake ¡Ã‚ ¯s] mouth and poison dripping from his fangs; it was all a nasty sight, pitiful now that it was done. ¡Ã‚ ± This bloody image of snake ¡Ã‚ ¯s impending death shows the significance of the man ¡Ã‚ ¯s acceptance toward the snake. In a sense, the reader can interpret the man ¡Ã‚ ¯s sympathy toward the snake because of the possibility that he should have let him go instead of killing him.

A Review Paper of Internet Banking Services -- internet banking, bankin

Today, Information Technology revolutionized our life almost in every filed. One of among several blessing of information technology is Internet Banking services that brings ease and comfort for our banking activities. Over few years Internet Banking has evolved as convenient, self-serviced technology, cost-reducing and time saving channel. Internet banking is available 24x7 across geographies. In last few years, the number of internet banking users has been increasing rapidly. In present hyper competitive environment internet banking works as a competitive differentiator among banks. Internet banking has become an important revenue builder for banks. Increased competition in the banking sector and customer demand is forcing banks to provide their services online (Southard, P. & Siau, K, 2004). Banks try to gain competitive advantages in technological atmosphere by adopting new technological developments in their area as soon as possible (Ozcan, 2007; Chang 2002). Information technology developments in the banking sector have speed up communication and transactions for clients. It is vital to extend this banking feature to clients for maximizing the advantages for both clients and service providers (Safeena, Abdullah and Hema, 2010, 2011; Qureshi et al, 2008). In the past, internet banking has been adopted by banks mainly to decrease costs and increases revenue by reducing staff and branch networks. Today, banks are visualizing the internet banking as a strategic enabler of customer services and others view internet banking as the key to expansion. Internet banking has gained acceptance throughout the world as a new delivery channel for performing various banking and financial activities. Internet Banking is an internet portal,... ...ility of technology and infrastructure to support the new model of banking. Second, the need for Internet banking itself – Internet Banking or an efficient system of instantaneous banking or convenient banking. Third, an adequate mechanism to tackle the security risk and operational risk aspects (Sharma, 2001). Fourth, a proper legal framework to take care of the rights and obligation of the consumers. While most of these issues have been somewhat addressed, an important issue still remains - what existing and potential consumers feel about Internet banking and on the basis of this how an appropriate banking model can be developed in Indian context. (Sharma B.R., 2001; Gupta P.K., 2008). Perceived Factors behind the Growth in Internet Banking: †¢ Competition †¢ Cost Efficiencies †¢ Geographical Reach †¢ Branding †¢ Relationship building †¢ Customers Demographics

Models for Change Business Process Reengineering Essay

Assess Business Strategy Like many other approaches, BPR claims to align organisation change (and IT development) with business strategy. This is important because BPR concentrates of improving processes which are of primary strategic importance. The assumption is that strategy is already determined, and that it is externally focussed, dealing with customers, products, suppliers and markets. BPR is quite distinct from strategic planning. Select Processes Here we choose those processes on which we will concentrate our reengineering effort. This choice involves a number of steps. Identify Major Processes A process as â€Å"a structured,measured set of activities designed to produce a specified output for a particular customer or market, process is â€Å"an interrelated series of activities that convert business inputs into business outputs (by changing the state of relevant business entities)†. Determine Process Boundaries This is easy to say and hard to do. Some processes, such as product manufacture, are fairly obvious, though there may be doubt whether to include activities such as materials procurement within this process. Sometimes the boundaries between processes which follow one another (eg marketing and sales, delivery and installation) are hard to agree. Processes which involve more than one company can also cause boundary problems. Assess Strategic Relevance Usually reengineering will concentrate on a small number of processes. This may seem suboptimal, but provided the processes chosen are complete (not parts of processes) and the reengineering is thorough, a flow-on effect will probably mean that unsatisfactory neighbouring processes will soon become candidates for redesign. So we should begin with those processes which are most critical to the organisation’s strategy. At UTS, for instance, the major strategy might be to obtain more money from industry. Processes directly contributing to this strategy would be good candidates for reengineering. Qualify Culture and Politics This step (which is even less quantifiable than the others) assesses the culture and politics of the organisational units performing activities within the process, and how these units are viewed in wider organisational politics and culture. Processes in a medical school, for instance, may be harder to reengineer than those in a business school, both because the medical school places a high value on its independence and because it is highly regarded by the rest of the university (or even society). Since successful reengineering ultimately depends on the cooperation of those performing the process, it is better to deal with processes where the culture and politics are favourable. Creating a Process Vision â€Å"Creating a strong and sustained linkage between strategy and the way work is done is an enduring challenge in complex organizations. Because business processes define how work is done, we are dealing with the relationship between strategy and processes.In BPR, as in all design work, creating the vision is the crucial stage; and it is also the least structured. In assessing strategy and selecting processes we were trying to understand things which (in theory) already exist. Similarly when we come to assess existing processes and resources. For design and implementation we may be helped by guidelines, methodologies and examples of similar systems. But in creating a vision we are more or less on our own. There are a number of techniques, which are known to help in the creative process. When working on process visions it is also helpful to consider in which areas of the business we wish to redesign processes. Davenport deals with two aspects of vision creation: the search for a vi sion and vision characteristics. Vision – search Process visons must be related to strategy, so we may look to the organisation’s strategy for inspiration. This assumes that the strategy is sufficiently specific to give a sense of direction (eg â€Å"improve quality of service to regular customers† rather than â€Å"improve quality†). Thinking about strategy also keeps the vision search at the right level – broad but specific. Because much BPR work supports a customer focused strategy, it is important to have customer input to the vision. More generally, the â€Å"customer† is the one receiving the business output, and this includes internal customers; it is important that we know the output is â€Å"right† before we start working out how to produce it. Benchmarking, in the context of creating a project, means seeing how other people do it. This is related to the idea of adopting â€Å"best practice†, though if we want competitive advantage we may have to do better than â€Å"best†; nevertheless, it is good to find out what is best so far. We are looking for ideas, not imitating, so we may look for benchmarks in quite different types of organisation; in fact this may be easier, since our direct competitors may not wish to reveal their â€Å"best† practice to us. Vision – objectives and attributes â€Å"Process visions, like strategies, should be easy to communicate to the organization, no threatening to those who must implement (or who are affected by) them, and as inspirational as measurable targets can be.† [Davenport,p119] The process vision shows what we want our new process to do and to a very limited extent how it will do it. These are respectively the process objectives and attributes. The objectives should have a customer or business focus – they must truly be concerned with outcome. They must according to all the experts be measurable – we must be able to tell how we have done. And they should be simple and non-contradicty – we don’t want a long list of competing objectives, nor objectives whose measures are only comprehensible to a mathematician, economist or accountant. Typical objectives would be â€Å"reduce delivery time by 50%† or â€Å"double the number of potential customers contacted per month†. The attributes indicate how we intend to achieve the objectives, perhaps in terms of technology or general principles. It is somewhat unusual to develop objectives and means simultaneously but since BPR is aiming for radical objectives it is necessary to have some indication of how they will be achieved before management will be prepared to commit to the design phase. Notice that it is important at this stage to consider a variety of means before the vision is finalised. Adding attributes to our objectives might give â€Å"reduce delivery time by 50% by outsourcing delivery services† or â€Å"use to internet to double the number of potential customers contacted per month without increasing staff†. Davenport points out that radical change will only be achieved by setting ambitious objectives – â€Å"creativity must be encouraged by setting impossible goals†. Understand and Improve Existing Processes Some proponents of BPR advocate starting with a â€Å"clean slate† but most (including Davenport) recommend that we spend time studying existing processes. There are a number of reasons for this: †¢People in the organisations (and customers) will use language based on the existing processes. We need to use this language to explain our proposals. †¢When implementing the new processes we will have to plan change from the current situation – the existing processes. †¢The existing processes may be causing problems which we could easily repeat if we do not understand them. Existing processes may also contain activities for avoiding problems which we might not anticipate. †¢The existing processes are the base from which we measure improvement. Studying the existing processes includes the following activities: †¢The current process flow is described using any suitable diagramming method. Such a method should indicate the sequence of activities, trigger events, time taken for each activity and any buffering delays. †¢The current process is evaluated against the new objectives and assessed for conformance to the new attributes. †¢Problems with the current process are identified. It is important to remember that reengneering is not meant simply to rationalize existing processes. †¢Short term improvements to the current processes are proposed. It is not advisable to postpone simple improvements until complete reengineering is done. Assess Social and Technical Resources In this step we judge whether we have the resources available to proceed with the project. â€Å"Social resources† refer to the organisation and the people in it. Is the organisation used to change? Are there key supporters of BPR? Does the organisation have a tradition of team work and open discussion? Is there an atmosphere of trust? What skills are available? Are people willing to learn? If social resources appear to be inadequate, they will need to be developed before or during the reengineering project. The same applies to technical resources, though these are easier to judge. Is appropriate technology available to support the new processes? This means hardware, software and skilled people. Limitations particularly occur with network infrastructure. Again, missing capabilities will have to be developed, although in this case (unlike social resources) outsourcing is a possibility. Design and Implement New Processes Design and implementation of the new processes can use any suitable methodology, but a number of points need to be remembered. †¢Since BPR is performance oriented the methodology must be able to predict performance during design. †¢BPR projects are meant to be done quickly – the methodology should support this. †¢Stakeholders (both customers and those who will be operating the process) must be involved. †¢We are looking for radical design as well as radical vision so there will be more brainstorming. †¢For any design proposal we must be able to assess feasibility, risk and benefit. †¢It would be difficult to achieve the previous objectives unless the methodology was strongly based on prototyping. 5 stages of reengineering: †¢preparation †¢identification †¢vision †¢design – technical, social †¢transformation These stages are very similar to Davenport’s, although they go into more detail about process modelling. Manganelli pays more attention to improving existing processes and his methodology has more emphasis on entities rather than processes – ie it has more of a data base flavour. Davenport (1993) notes that Quality management, often referred to as total quality management (TQM) or continuous improvement, refers to programs and initiatives that emphasize incremental improvement in work processes and outputs over an open-ended period of time. In contrast, Reengineering, also known as business process redesign or process innovation, refers to discrete initiatives that are intended to achieve radically redesigned and improved work processes in a bounded time frame. Contrast between the two is provided by Davenport (1993):

Sepsis

Four days later on February 29th, she as moved into ICC because she continued to have the same symptoms and appeared to be getting worse. After doing my own research on her symptoms, I asked the ICC nurse if they tested her for sepsis. She confirmed that she did have sepsis and they were now treating that along with a laundry list of other things. Eight days later, my mother passed away from complications of: Sepsis, COOP, Pneumonia, Hypoxia, Kielbasa, and Hyperplasia (carbon-dioxide poisoning). Sepsis is a condition that can be a cause or result of other diseases and infections. WayneRobinson and Ron Daniels (2013) quote the definition as: Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissue and organs. Sepsis can lead to shock, multiple organ failure and death especially if not recognized early and treated promptly. Sepsis remains the primary cause of death from infection despite advances in modern medicine, including va ccines, antibiotics and acute care. Millions of people worldwide die of sepsis every year (l 2). Sepsis can be difficult to diagnose quickly because of the underlying infection(s) hat may be causing the sepsis.There is a very small window of opportunity in which treatment can dramatically improve survival. A patient that is admitted with severe sepsis is at a level of risk many times greater than if he or she were admitted with a stroke or heart attack. The two most common infections associated with sepsis are It's and pneumonia. In my mother's case, she had a OUT and was unaware that she had one. In fact, she probably had it for a couple of weeks prior to going to the hospital. There are three diagnosed levels of sepsis; sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock.Sepsis is a systematic inflammatory response to an infection defined by two or more inflammatory response syndrome criteria. Those criteria are based on observations such as fever, slow respirations (breathing), rapid heart r ate, and an altered mental state. Some blood test results can assist in determining this as well. Severe sepsis is present when one or more organs begin to fail as a result of sepsis. Acute respiratory distress can accompany severe sepsis as well as a disease called Disseminated Intramuscular Coagulation (DICE), which has to do with the blood not clotting normally.DICE is highly relevant to outcome in patients with sepsis. The final level of diagnosis is septic shock. Septic shock is present when there is evidence that the tissues and organs are receiving insufficient amounts of oxygen and nutrients, low blood pressure, a rapid heart rate and breathing, and can be considered the most severe end of the spectrum of this disease. As stated earlier, my mother had a laundry list of things wrong with her, all contributing to her death. Some of the infections she had developed from the sepsis infection, and some of them caused the sepsis infection.Her UT', for example, was ere initial diag nosis when she came into the ERE. People with limited or no sensation below the waist may not know they have a UT'. â€Å"An untreated OUT may spread to the kidney, causing more pain and illness. It can also cause sepsis. The term resources is usually used to describe sepsis caused by a UT'† (Sepsis Alliance, n. D. , ‘1 2). More than one half of reported cases of older adults with resources are caused by a UT'. Another interesting fact is that one-third of people who develop sepsis, die from it.Those that do survive it are usually left with some type of organ dysfunction and/or amputation. While in the ICC, my mother developed hyperplasia (carbon-dioxide poisoning). This infection was a result of the sepsis. I had never heard of hyperplasia before so I started to ask questions. Because of the sepsis infection, my mother's respirations were very weak. She wasn't breathing hard enough to release the carbon-dioxide from her body when she exhaled. To assist her with breathi ng, she was put on a APIPA machine that forced the oxygen into her system so she could breathe easier.The hope was that this machine would help her breathe until she was well enough to earth properly on her own. The nurses tried small intervals of removing the machine to see how she would do, but her gas levels would go back up if off of the machine too long. The highest gas rate at one time was 86, which is almost quadruple what a normal level should be. Another infection that my mother developed while in the hospital was Kielbasa. Kielbasa is a type of bacteria that causes other infections. â€Å"Kielbasa infections commonly occur among sick patients who are receiving treatment for other conditions.Patients who require devices like ventilators (breathing machines) or intravenous catheters are more at risk for Kielbasa infections† (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2012, ‘1 1). A person has to be exposed to the bacteria to get the infection. Unfortunate ly, medical tools such as ventilators and intravenous catheters allow Kielbasa to enter the body off patient and cause infection. It is very rare for Kielbasa to spread to family members of patient's. Healthy people are at a very low risk of acquiring this infection.My mother most likely developed Kielbasa from the Bi-PAP machine she needed to use to breathe, as well as a compromised immune system. Another condition my mother developed as a result of the sepsis was hypoxia. In her case, she had metabolic hypoxia. This developed because of the high demand of oxygen required from her tissues. Even though the oxygen can be transported and absorbed properly, it is not enough when it comes to sepsis. Some organs that can be affected by hypoxia are the heart, liver and the brain. There is a correlation between edema and hypoxia as well.Edema is the swelling of tissues (usually due to heart failure) and can limit the ability of oxygen to reach tissues. Since my mother also had edema, her h ypoxia very well could have developed from both the sepsis and edema. One of the last infections my mother developed was pneumonia. Pneumonia is commonly associated with sepsis as either a result or a cause. Pneumonia is an infection in the lungs and can be in Just one or both lungs. If pneumonia alone is left untreated it can be deadly. In the days prior to antibiotics, about one third of people who developed bacteria pneumonia died.Once my mother developed pneumonia, we knew that she was never going to recover from all of the infections she was developing. She came into the hospital with COOP that she had for several years prior and a number of other issues that only contributed to her development of sepsis and these other infections. Out of the millions worldwide that die every year from sepsis, more than 750,000 of them are in the U. S. One article I read said that sepsis â€Å"triggers a cascading, whole-body inflammatory response† (McKinney, 2014, ‘1 3).According to federal data, it is the leading cause of hospital deaths in ICC and the 10th leading cause of death in the United States overall. Hospitals continue to struggle when it comes to early detection of sepsis. Another interesting fact I found was that researchers noted high rates of sepsis mortality in the Midwest, mid-Atlantic and Southern States; even as much as four times the national average. These areas are called â€Å"hot spots†. Researchers continue to research the reasons behind this. â€Å"Is it a result of patient level differences: commodities, age, race, smoking, alcohol, etc.? Is it a result of MS care?DEED care? In-patient care? This needs to be sorted out† (Struck, 2013, ‘1 6). The following graph from 2010 illustrates the death rate in these hot spots as well as there areas of the United States: (McKinney, 2014) There really is no single test for sepsis. It is at the discretion of the DEED and physicians to carefully screen patients who might have it in order to rule it out or identify who actually has it. Unfortunately, there is not one single treatment that targets sepsis. Instead, physicians and nurses follow a number of treatments including antibiotics, intravenous fluids, oxygen, and in some cases, surgery.Sometimes it is hard to get physicians to think about sepsis as a disease that is time- sensitive like a heart-attack. Continuous efforts and resources will hopefully lead too reduction in mortality rates. In conclusion, not enough is known about sepsis, yet it is one of the most deadly diseases someone can get. My father had never heard of sepsis until mom was diagnosed with it. After learning more about sepsis, I am not surprised she developed it. She was sick for years starting back in 2007 when she had a triple- bypass, Cybernetic surgery for cancer on her lung, and a kidney removed for cancer as well.She never fully recovered from all of that and I think it Just made her alienable to other infections and diseases. Watching the disease progress firsthand made me see that it is almost impossible for anyone to recover from it. As stated earlier, it cascades into other diseases so rapidly that hospital staff cannot stop it. We were told that there was no way my mother was ever going to recover from the disease and to keep her alive she would need to be on a machine for the rest of her shortened life. No one deserves to live like that. Sepsis will leave a patient with no quality of life and a poisoning of the whole body.I want to help create more wariness about the disease and will continue to do research on the disease and other diseases that cause and result from it. I am also going to seek out organizations in our area to see how I can be an advocate for this awful disease. I would love to be able to educate families that may be going through what my family had to go through. This evil may have taken my mother from me, but it has only made me stronger and more determined than ever to do someth ing positive and help others. Reference Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Kielbasa pneumonia in Healthcare Settings.

Operational Budget

A budget is a formal plan that estimates the plausible expenditures and income for an organization over a certain amount of time. Seeing that budgets are such a valuable tool for planning and having a control of a company’s finances, budgeting affects nearly every type of organization. Typically a small business contributes in budgeting to determine the most efficient and effective approach making money and increasing its asset base.A financial plan can help a company use its restricted finances in a way that best utilizes existing business opportunities. An operational budget involves the development of monetary tactics for the organization, generally for a year. Though annual budgets need not be subdivided into shorter terms, monthly and/or quarterly budgets are particularly constructive for foreseeing cash needs and for evaluating actual knowledge with plan.An extensive master budget entails planning for all stages of the operation: sales, marketing, manufacturing, engineer ing and general administration. â€Å"Once a budget has been established comparisons may be made with actual results and variances analyzed, budgetary control. Flexible budgetary techniques may also be used to update figures or test alternative courses of action. The advantages and disadvantages of an operating budget are: Advantages| Disadvantages| | |Commitment and motivation of managers| The time taken and the cost of this time| Looks at alternatives| May be unexpected events that affect later results| Sets targets and standards| Information must remain confidential| If predicted volumes change, new sales and costs can be predicted using flexible budget techniques| Managers may treat cost budgets as separate from revenues, and hence over-spend if revenues are not achieved| Looks forward and considers both internal and external factors| | In order to be successful, operating budgets are prepared by departmental managers using the Uniform System of Accounts for the Lodging Industr y or similar to give detailed figures for all volumes, sales, costs and hence profits or costs. † (BURGESS, 2009) These may exist by month and could be determined by day for the entire financial year. The three main steps in contributing towards accomplishing a successful operating budget are: planning for achievable target and objectives, comparing the actual numbers to the budget and evaluating to differences, and taking corrective action if necessary. The key pecuniary relation between a strategic plan and an operational plan is the establishment of a departmental financial plan.The strategic plan gives a budget approximation that is based on anticipated revenue. ‘The operational plan provides a more precise number that can be used to measure the success of a strategic plan. If the operational budget is more than the strategic plan provides for, then the company needs to exert more effort to bring the two numbers more in line. † (Rosemary Peavler, 2012) Budgets are a valuable instrument for businesses to use to help evaluate the performance of their firm at the end of the time period that the budget covers. Businesses should look at actual expenses, for instance, compared to budgeted, or planned, expenditures.By doing this, the business can see how much actual expenses assorted from intended expenses in order to improve the budgeting process in the next time period. Businesses also use budgets for the idea of control. If businesses have a master budget to track, then they can carefully manage expenditures during the time period of the budget by evaluating them to the master budget. Budgets help avoid overspending. The budget also gives the company a target to use by which to evaluate the firm. Not only can expenditures be monitored, but so can income inputs. Some disadvantages of budgeting are staff time devoted to budgets bears a potential opportunity cost.The time these workers give to the budgeting process means they are not accessible to accomplish other tasks and responsibilities. There are Errors and imprecision that will always remain since it is unfeasible to forecast the future. There are major external events, such as, rising energy prices or the worldwide recession that may disfigure the whole process. Budgets also involve and affect people therefore they could be basis for conflict since there may be complicated decisions over where restricted funds are spent. Some departments with tight budgets could feel constrained. Therefore, this will carry the risk of frustrating initiative and enterprise.

Ap Bio Chapter 35 Notes

Chapter 35 Plant Structure, Growth, and Development Lecture Outline Overview: Plastic Plants? †¢ The fanwort, an aquatic weed, demonstrates the great developmental plasticity that is characteristic of plants. o The fanwort has feathery underwater leaves and large, flat, floating surface leaves. o Both leaf types have genetically identical cells, but the dissimilar environments in which they develop cause different genes involved in leaf formation to be turned on or off. In addition to plastic structural responses of individual plants to specific environments, plant species have adaptations in morphology that benefit them in their specific environments. o For example, cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines and a stem that serves as the primary site of photosynthesis. These adaptations minimize water loss in desert environments. †¢ The form of any plant is controlled by environmental and genetic factors. As a result, no two plants are identical. †¢ Angiosperms make up 90% of plant species and are at the base of the food web of nearly every terrestrial ecosystem. Most land animals, including humans, depend on angiosperms directly or indirectly for sustenance. Concept 35. 1 The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells. †¢ Plants, like multicellular animals, have organs that are composed of different tissues, and tissues that are composed of different cell types. o A tissue is a group of cells with common structure and function. o An organ consists of several types of tissues that work together to carry out particular functions. Vascular plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves. The basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources from two very different environments. o Vascular plants obtain water and minerals from the soil. o Vascular plants obtain CO2 and light above-ground. †¢ To obtain the resources they need, vascular p lants have evolved two systems: a subterranean root system and an aerial shoot system of stems and leaves. †¢ Each system depends on the other. o Lacking chloroplasts and living in the dark, roots would starve without photosynthates, the sugar and other carbohydrates imported from the shoot system. Conversely, the shoot system depends on water and minerals that roots absorb from the soil. Roots provide anchorage, absorption, and storage. †¢ A root is an organ that anchors a vascular plant in the soil, absorbs minerals and water, and stores sugars and starches. †¢ Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a taproot system, consisting of one large vertical root (the taproot) that develops from an embryonic root. †¢ The taproot produces many small lateral, or branch, roots. o In angiosperms, taproots often store sugars and starches that later support flowering and fruit production. Taproot systems generally penetrate deeply and are well adapted to deep soils. †¢ In se edless vascular plants and most monocots, including grasses, the embryonic root dies and does not form a main root. †¢ Instead, many small roots grow from the stem. Such roots are adventitious, a terms describing a plant organ that grows in an unusual location. †¢ Each small root forms its own lateral roots, giving rise to a fibrous root system—a mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface. o A fibrous root system is usually shallower than a taproot system and is best adapted to shallow soils with light rainfall. Grass roots are concentrated in the upper few centimeters of soil. As a result, grasses make excellent ground cover for preventing erosion. †¢ The root system helps anchor a plant. †¢ In both taproot and fibrous root systems, absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs enormously increase the surface area. o Root hairs are short-lived, tubular extensions of individual root epiderma l cells. †¢ Some plants have modified roots. Some arise from roots, while others are adventitious, arising above-ground from stems or even from leaves. Some modified roots provide additional support and anchorage. Others store water and nutrients or absorb oxygen from the air. Stems consist of alternating nodes and internodes. †¢ A stem is an organ consisting of alternating nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. †¢ At the angle formed by each leaf and the stem is an axillary bud with the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch. †¢ The growth of a young shoot is usually concentrated at its apex, where there is an apical bud, or terminal bud, with developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. The presence of a terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting the growth of axillary buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance. o By concentrating resources on growing taller, apical dominan ce is an evolutionary adaptation that increases the plant’s exposure to light. †¢ In the absence of a terminal bud, the axillary buds break dormancy and give rise to lateral shoots complete with their own apical buds, leaves, and axillary buds. o This is why pruning trees and shrubs makes them bushier. †¢ Modified shoots with diverse functions have evolved in many plants. These shoots, which include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most plants. †¢ The leaf is the primary site of photosynthetic organs of most plants, although green stems are also photosynthetic. †¢ Although leaves vary extensively in form, they generally consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a stem node. o Grasses and other monocots lack petioles. In these plants, the base of the leaf forms a sheath that envelops the stem. Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement o f veins, the vascular tissue of leaves. †¢ Most monocots have parallel major veins that run the length of the blade, while eudicot leaves have a branched network of major veins. †¢ Plant taxonomists use floral morphology, leaf morphology, the branching pattern of veins, and the spatial arrangement of leaves to help identify and classify plants. o For example, simple leaves have a single, undivided blade, while compound leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole. o Many large leaves are compound, which allows them to withstand strong winds without tearing. The structural adaptation of compound leaves also confines pathogens that invade the leaf to one leaflet. †¢ Most leaves are specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ Some plants have leaves that have become adapted for other functions, including tendrils that cling to supports, spines of cacti for defense, leaves modified for water storage, and brightly colored leaves that attract pollinators. Plant organs a re composed of three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. †¢ Each organ of a plant has three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Each system is continuous throughout the plant body. †¢ The dermal tissue system is the plant’s outer protective covering. †¢ In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system is a single layer of tightly packed cells, or epidermis. †¢ The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a waxy coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial parts of the plant retain water. †¢ In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots. †¢ The epidermis has other specialized characteristics consistent with the function of the organ it covers. For example, the root hairs are extensions of epidermal cells near the tips of the roots. o Trichomes, outgrowths of shoot epidermis, reduce water loss and reflect light. They protect against insects with sticky secret ions of insecticidal biochemicals. †¢ The vascular tissue system is involved in the transport of materials between roots and shoots. o Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots. o Phloem transports sugars, the products of photosynthesis, to the roots and sites of growth, such as developing leaves and fruits. †¢ The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele. In angiosperms, the root stele forms a solid central vascular cylinder, while the stele of stems and leaves consists of vascular bundles, separate strands of xylem and phloem. †¢ Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with a variety of cell types. †¢ The ground tissue system is tissue that is neither dermal nor vascular. †¢ Ground tissue is divided into pith, internal to vascular tissue, and cortex, external to the vascular tissue. †¢ The functions of specialized cells within ground tissue include photosynthesis, storage, and support. Plant tissues ar e composed of three basic cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Plant cells are differentiated, with each type of plant cell possessing structural adaptations that make specific functions possible. o Cell differentiation may be evident within the protoplast, the cell contents exclusive of the cell wall. o Modifications of cell walls also play a role in plant cell differentiation. †¢ The major types of differentiated plant cells are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem. †¢ Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible; most lack secondary walls. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large central vacuole. †¢ Parenchyma cells are often depicted as â€Å"typical† plant cells because they generally are the least specialized, but there are exceptions. o For example, the highly specialized sieve-tube elements of the phloem ar e parenchyma cells. †¢ Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various organic products. o For example, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. o Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells. †¢ Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and replacement of organs after injury to the plant. †¢ In the laboratory, it is possible to regenerate an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell. †¢ Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, although the walls are unevenly thick. †¢ Grouped into strands or cylinders, collenchyma cells help support young parts of the plant shoot. Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma just below the epi dermis, providing support without restraining growth. †¢ Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and elongate with the stems and leaves they support. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin; they function as supporting elements of the plant. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. †¢ Unlike parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stopped lengthening. Many sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they produce rigid secondary cells walls before the protoplast dies. o In parts of the plant that are still elongating, secondary walls are deposited in a spiral or ring pattern, enabling the cell wall to stretch like a spring as the cell grows. †¢ Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids, are specialized entirely for support. o Fibers are long, slender, and tapered, and usually occur in group s. ? Fibers from hemp are used for making rope, and fibers from flax are woven into linen. o Sclereids are irregular in shape and shorter than fibers.They have very thick, lignified secondary walls. ? Sclereids impart hardness to nutshells and seed coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits. †¢ The water-conducting elements of xylem, the tracheids and vessel elements, are elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity. o The thickened cell walls remain as a nonliving conduit through which water can flow. †¢ Both tracheids and vessels have secondary walls interrupted by pits, thinner regions where only primary walls are present. †¢ Water moves from cell to cell mainly through pits. †¢ Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Because their secondary walls are hardened with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport. †¢ Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner-walled, and less tapered than tracheids. †¢ Vessel e lements are aligned end to end, forming long micropipes or xylem vessels. †¢ The ends are perforated, enabling water to flow freely. †¢ In the phloem, sucrose, other organic compounds, and some mineral ions move through tubes formed by chains of cells called sieve-tube elements. †¢ Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, although a sieve-tube element lacks a nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacuole. The end walls, the sieve plates, have pores that facilitate the flow of fluid between cells. †¢ Each sieve-tube element has a nonconducting nucleated companion cell, which is connected to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. †¢ The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cell serve both that cell and the adjacent sieve-tube element. †¢ In some plants, companion cells in leaves help load sugar into the sieve-tube elements, which transport the sugars to other parts of the plant. Concept 35. 2 Meristems generate cells for new organs. A major difference between plants and most animals is that plant growth is not limited to an embryonic or juvenile period. †¢ Most plants demonstrate indeterminate growth, growing as long as the plant lives. †¢ In contrast, most animals and certain plant organs, such as flowers, leaves, and thorns, undergo determinate growth, ceasing to grow after they reach a certain size. †¢ Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality. †¢ Annuals complete their life cycle—from germination to flowering to seed production to death—in a single year or less. o Many wildflowers and important food crops, such as cereals and legumes, are annuals. The lives of biennials span two years, with flowering and fruiting in the second year. o Radishes and carrots are biennials that are harvested after the first year. †¢ Plants such as trees, shrubs, and some grasses that live many years are perennials. o Some buffalo grass of the North American plains has been growing fo r 10,000 years from seeds that sprouted at the end of the last ice age. o Perennials do not usually die from old age but from an infection or some environmental trauma, such as fire or drought. †¢ A plant is capable of indeterminate growth because it has perpetually embryonic tissues called meristems. Apical meristems, located at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots, supply cells for the plant to grow in length. †¢ This elongation, primary growth, enables roots to extend through the soil and shoots to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide. †¢ In herbaceous plants, primary growth produces almost all of the plant body. †¢ Woody plants also show secondary growth, progressive thickening of roots and shoots where primary growth has ceased. †¢ Secondary growth is produced by lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing cells that extend along the lengths of roots and shoots. The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xyle m and phloem. o The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm. †¢ The cells within meristems divide to generate additional cells, some of which remain in the meristematic region, while others differentiate and are incorporated into the tissues and organs of the growing plant. o Cells that remain as sources of new cells are called initials. o Cells that are displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, continue to divide until the cells they produce become specialized within developing tissues. At the tip of a winter twig of a deciduous tree is the dormant apical bud, enclosed by scales that protect its apical meristem. †¢ In the spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a new spurt of primary growth. †¢ Along each growth segment, nodes are marked by scars left when leaves fell in the autumn. †¢ Above each leaf scar is either an axillary bud or a branch twig. †¢ Farther down the twig are whorls of scars left by the scales that en closed the apical bud during the preceding winter. †¢ Each spring and summer, as primary growth extends the shoot, secondary growth thickens the parts of the shoot that formed in earlier years. Concept 35. Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots. †¢ Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems. o Herbaceous plants and the youngest parts of woody plants represent the primary plant body. †¢ Apical meristems lengthen both roots and shoots. However, there are important differences in the primary growth of these two systems. †¢ The root tip is covered by a thimble-like root cap, which protects the meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. o The cap also secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the growing root tip. Growth in length is concentrated just behind the root tip, where three zones of cells at successive stages of primary growth are located. †¢ These zones—the zone of cell division, the zone of elongation, and the zone of differentiation—grade together. †¢ The zone of cell division includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. o New root cells are produced in this region, including the cells of the root cap. †¢ The zone of cell division blends into the zone of elongation, where cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original length. It is this elongation of cells that is mainly responsible for pushing the root tip, including the meristem, into the soil. o The meristem sustains growth by continuously adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of elongation. †¢ In the zone of differentiation, cells complete differentiation and become distinct cell types. †¢ The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. †¢ Water and minerals absorbed from the soil must enter the plant through the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the root. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of epidermal cells. †¢ Most roots have a vascular cylinder of xylem and phloem. o In eudicot roots, xylem radiates from the center like a star, with phloem developing between the arms of the xylem â€Å"star. † o In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma surrounded by alternating xylem and phloem. The central region, called pit, is distinct from stem pith. †¢ The ground tissue of roots consists of parenchyma cells that fill the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store sugars and starches, and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. †¢ The innermost layer of the cortex, the endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick that forms a selective barrier between the cortex and the vascular cylinder. †¢ Lateral roots may sprout from the outermost layer of the vascula r cylinder, the pericycle. o A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis to emerge from the established root. o The vascular tissue of the lateral root is continuous with the vascular cylinder of the primary root. The apical meristem of a shoot is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. †¢ Leaves arise as leaf primordia on the flanks of the apical meristem. †¢ Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristems at the bases of the leaf primordia. †¢ Within a bud, leaf primordia are crowded close together because the internodes are very short. †¢ Most of the elongation of the shoot occurs by growth in length of slightly older internodes below the shoot apex. †¢ In some plants, including grasses, internodes continue to elongate all along the length of the shoot over a prolonged period. These plants have meristematic regions called intercalary meristems at the base of each leaf. o This explains why grass c ontinues to grow after being mowed. †¢ Unlike its central position in a root, vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in strands called vascular bundles. o Because the vascular system of the stem is near the surface, branches can develop with connections to the vascular tissue without having to originate from deep within the main shoot. †¢ In most eudicots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, with pith inside and cortex outside the ring. The vascular bundles have xylem facing the pith and phloem facing the cortex. †¢ In the stems of most monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue rather than arranged in a ring. †¢ In both monocots and eudicots, the stem’s ground tissue is mostly parenchyma. †¢ Many stems are strengthened by collenchyma cells just beneath the epidermis. †¢ Sclerenchyma fiber cells also provide support. †¢ The epidermal barrier of leaves is interrupted only by stomata, tiny pores that regulate gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside a leaf. Each stomatal pore is flanked by two specialized epidermal cells called guard cells. o The term stoma can refer to either the stomatal pore or the entire stomatal complex, the pore and two guard cells. †¢ The stomata are also the major avenues of evaporative water loss from the plant—a process called transpiration. †¢ The ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. †¢ The mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ In many eudicots, a layer or more of columnar palisade mesophyll lies above spongy mesophyll. CO2 and oxygen circulate through the labyrinth of air spaces around the irregularly spaced cells of the spongy mesophyll. †¢ The air spaces are particularly large near stomata, where gas exchange with the outside air occurs. †¢ The vascular tissue of a leaf is cont inuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. †¢ Leaf traces, connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. †¢ Vascular bundles in the leaves are called veins. Each vein is enclosed in a protective bundle sheath consisting of one or more layers of parenchyma. o Bundle-sheath cells are prominent in leaves that undergo C4 photosynthesis. Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. †¢ The xylem brings water and minerals to the photosynthetic tissues, and the phloem carries sugars and other organic products to other parts of the plant. †¢ The vascular infrastructure also functions to support and reinforce the shape of the leaf. Concept 35. 4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants. †¢ The stems and roots of most eudicots increase in girth by secondary growth. †¢ The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambiu m. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for the shoot system. o The cork cambium produces a tough, thick covering consisting of wax-impregnated cells that protect the stem from water loss and invasion by insects, bacteria, and fungal spores. †¢ Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different regions. o Elongation of the stem (primary growth) occurs at the apical meristem, but increases in diameter (secondary growth) occur farther down the stem. †¢ All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, but it is rare in monocots. The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells that may be one cell thick. †¢ The vascular cambium forms successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior. †¢ The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant. †¢ The vascular cambium d evelops from parenchyma cells that retain the capacity to divide. o In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium forms as a continuous cylinder outside the cortex and primary xylem and inside the pith and primary phloem. In a typical woody root, the vascular cambium forms in segments between the primary phloem, the lobes of primary xylem, and the pericycle. †¢ Viewed in cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials. o As these cells divide, they increase the circumference of the vascular cambium, adding secondary xylem to the inside of the cambium and secondary phloem to the outside. †¢ Some initials are elongated, with long axes parallel to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem. They also produce sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma, and fibers of the phloem. †¢ Other initials are shorter, oriented perpendicular to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce vascular rays that transfer water and nutrients laterally within the woody stem, store sugars and starches, and aid in wound repair. †¢ As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem accumulate, producing the tissue we call wood. †¢ Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel elements (in angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness and strength. †¢ The first tracheid and vessel cells formed in the spring (early wood) have larger diameters and thinner walls than the cells produced later in the summer (late wood). o The structure of the early wood maximizes delivery of water to new, expanding leaves. o The thick-walled cells of later wood provide more physical support. †¢ In temperate regions, secondary growth in perennial plants ceases during the winter. †¢ This pattern of growth—cambium dormancy, early wood production, and late wood production—produces annual growth rings. Dendrochronology is the science of analyzing tree ring growth patterns. o Scientists can use ring patterns to identify climate change. †¢ As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, known as heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. o Heartwood contains resins and other compounds that protect the core of the tree from fungi and insects. †¢ The outer layers, known as sapwood, continue to transport xylem sap. †¢ Because each new layer of secondary xylem has a larger circumference, secondary growth enables the xylem to transport more sap each year, supplying more leaves. Only the youngest secondary phloem, closest to the vascular cambium, functions in sugar transport. †¢ The older secondary phloem dies and is sloughed off as part of the bark. †¢ Early in secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits, dries, and falls off the stem or root. †¢ The e pidermis is replaced by two tissues produced by the first cork cambium, which arises in the outer cortex of stems and in the outer layer of the pericycle of roots. †¢ The first tissue, phelloderm, is a thin layer of parenchyma cells that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The cork cambium also produces cork cells, which accumulate at the cambium’s exterior. †¢ Waxy material called suberin deposited in the cell walls of cork cells before they die acts as a barrier against water loss, physical damage, and pathogens. †¢ A cork cambium and the tissues it produces make up a layer of periderm, a protective layer that replaces the epidermis. †¢ Because cork cells have suberin and are compacted together, the periderm is impermeable to water and gases. †¢ In most plants, water and minerals are absorbed in the youngest parts of the roots. The older parts of the roots anchor the plant and transport water and solutes between roots and shoots. †¢ In a reas called lenticels, spaces develop between the cork cells of the periderm. o These areas within the trunk facilitate gas exchange with the outside air. †¢ The thickening of a stem or root splits the first cork cambium, which loses its meristematic activity and differentiates into cork cells. †¢ A new cork cambium forms to the inside, resulting in a new layer of periderm. †¢ As this process continues, older layers of periderm are sloughed off. o This produces the cracked, peeling bark of many tree trunks. Bark is all tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (produced by the vascular cambium), the most recent periderm, and all the outer layers of periderm. Concept 35. 5 Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body. †¢ The development of body form and organization is called morphogenesis. †¢ During plant development, a single cell, the zygote, gives rise to a multicellular plant of a particular form with funct ionally integrated cells, tissues, and organs. †¢ Each cell in the plant body contains the same genomes, but different patterns of gene expression cause cells to differentiate. The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act to transform the fertilized egg into a plant. Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants. †¢ Modern molecular techniques enable plant biologists to investigate how growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation give rise to a plant. †¢ Much of this research has focused on Arabidopsis thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family. o Thousands of these small plants can be cultivated in a few square meters of lab space. o With a generation time of about six weeks, Arabidopsis is an excellent model for genetic studies. Arabidopsis also has one of the smallest genomes of all known plants. †¢ Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in a six-year multinational proje ct. o More recently, rice and poplar trees have had their entire genomes sequenced. †¢ Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000 genes, with fewer than 15,000 different types of genes. †¢ Now that the DNA sequence of Arabidopsis is known, plant biologists are working to identify the functions of every one of the plant’s genes. †¢ To aid in this effort, biologists are attempting to create mutants for every gene in the plant’s genome. Study of the functions of these genes has already expanded our understanding of plant development. †¢ By identifying each gene’s function, researchers aim to establish a blueprint for how plants develop, a major goal of systems biology. †¢ One day it may be possible to create a computer-generated â€Å"virtual plant† that will enable researchers to visualize which plant genes are activated in different parts of the plant during the entire course of development. Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion. †¢ Cell division in meristems increases the cell number, thereby increasing the potential for growth. However, it is cell expansion, especially cell elongation, that accounts for the increase in plant mass. †¢ The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell division are important determinants of plant form. o If the planes of division by a single cell and its descendents are parallel to the plane of the first cell division, a single file of cells will be produced. o If the planes of cell division of the descendent cells vary at random, an unorganized clump of cells will result. †¢ Although mitosis results in the equal allocation of chromosomes to daughter cells, cytokinesis may be asymmetrical. Asymmetrical cell division, in which one cell receives more cytoplasm than the other, is common in plant cells and usually signals a key developmental event. o For example, guard cells arise from an unspecialized epidermal cell through an asymmetrical cell division to fo rm a large unspecialized epidermal cell and a small guard cell â€Å"mother cell. † o Guard cells form when the small mother cell divides in a plane perpendicular to the first cell division. †¢ The plane in which a cell will divide is determined during late interphase. †¢ Microtubules in the outer cytoplasm become concentrated into a ring, the preprophase band. Although this ring disappears before metaphase, its â€Å"imprint† consists of an ordered array of actin microfilaments that remains after the microtubules disperse and signals the future plane of cell division. †¢ Cell expansion in animal cells is quite different from cell expansion in plant cells. o Animal cells grow by synthesizing a protein-rich cytoplasm, a metabolically expensive process. †¢ Growing plant cells add some protein-rich material to their cytoplasm, but water uptake by the large central vacuole accounts for 90% of a plant cell’s expansion. o This enables plants to gro w economically and rapidly. For example, bamboo shoots can elongate more than 2 m per week. †¢ Rapid expansion of shoots and roots increases plants’ exposure to light and soil, an important evolutionary adaptation to the immobile lifestyle of plants. †¢ In a growing plant cell, enzymes weaken cross-links in the cell wall, allowing it to expand as water diffuses into the vacuole by osmosis. †¢ The wall loosens when hydrogen ions secreted by the cell activate cell wall enzymes that break the cross-links between polymers in the wall. †¢ This reduces restraint on the turgid cell, which can take up more water and expand. Small vacuoles coalesce to form the cell’s central vacuole. †¢ The greatest expansion of a plant cell is usually oriented along the plant’s main axis. o The orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the innermost layers of the cell wall cause this differential growth, as the cell expands mainly perpendicular to the â€Å"grai n† of the microfibrils. o The orientation of microtubules in the cell’s outermost cytoplasm determines the orientation of cellulose microfibrils, the basic structural units of the cell wall. Arabidopsis mutants confirm the role of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and growth. Studies of Arabidopsis mutants have confirmed the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in both cell division and expansion. †¢ For example, fass mutants have unusually squat cells, which follow seemingly random planes of cell division. †¢ The roots and stems of fass mutants lack the ordered cell files and layers. †¢ Fass mutants develop into tiny adult plants with all their organs compressed longitudinally. †¢ The organization of microtubules in fass mutants is abnormal. o In interphase cells, the microtubules are randomly positioned. Preprophase bands do not form prior to mitosis. o Therefore, the cellulose microfibrils deposited in the cell wall cannot be arranged to determine the direction of the cell’s elongation. †¢ Cells with a fass mutation expand in all directions equally and divide in a haphazard arrangement, leading to stout stature and disorganized tissues. Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation. †¢ Morphogenesis organizes dividing and expanding cells into multicellular tissues and organs. †¢ The development of specific structures in specific locations is called pattern formation. Pattern formation depends to a large extent on positional information, signals that continuously indicate each cell’s location within an embryonic structure. †¢ Within a developing organ, each cell responds to positional information by differentiating into a particular cell type. †¢ Developmental biologists are accumulating evidence that gradients of specific molecules, generally proteins or mRNAs, provide positional information. o For example, a substance diffusing from a shoot’s apical meristem may â€Å"in form† the cells below of their distance from the shoot tip. A second chemical signal produced by the outermost cells may enable a cell to gauge its position relative to the radial axis of the developing organ. o Developmental biologists are testing the hypothesis that diffusible chemical signals provide plant cells with positional information. †¢ One type of positional information is polarity, the identification of the root end and shoot end along a well-developed axis. †¢ Axial polarity results in morphological and physiological differences. †¢ The unidirectional movement of the hormone auxin causes the emergence of adventitious roots and shoots from the appropriate ends of plant cuttings. The establishment of axial polarity is a critical step in plant morphogenesis. †¢ The first division of a plant zygote is normally asymmetrical and may initiate the polarization of the plant body into root and shoot ends. †¢ Once this polarity has been induced, it i s very difficult to reverse experimentally. o In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the first division is symmetrical, and the resulting ball-shaped plant lacks roots and leaves. †¢ Other genes that regulate pattern formation and morphogenesis include master regulatory genes called homeotic genes, which mediate many developmental events, such as organ initiation. For example, the protein product of the KNOTTED-1 homeotic gene is important for the development of leaf morphology, including the production of compound leaves. o Overexpression of this gene causes the compound leaves of a tomato plant to become â€Å"supercompound. † Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. †¢ The diverse cell types of a plant, including guard cells, sieve-tube elements, and xylem vessel elements, all descend from a common cell, the zygote, and share the same DNA. The cloning of whole plants from single somatic cells demonstrates that the genome of a differentiated cell remains intact and can dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant. †¢ Cellular differentiation depends, to a large extent, on the control of gene expression. †¢ Cells with the same genomes follow different developmental pathways because they selectively express certain genes at specific times during differentiation. †¢ The activation or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation depends on positional information—where a particular cell is located relative to other cells. For example, two distinct cell types in Arabidopsis, root hair cells and hairless epidermal cells, develop from immature epidermal cells. o Cells in contact with one underlying cortical cell differentiate into mature, hairless cells, while those in contact with two underlying cortical cells differentiate into root hair cells. o The homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is normally expressed only in hairless cells. If it is rendered dysfu nctional, every root epidermal cell develops a root hair. Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cell’s location in its developmental fate. In the process of shaping an organ, patterns of cell division and cell expansion affect the differentiation of cells by placing them in specific locations relative to other cells. †¢ Thus, positional information underlies all the processes of development: growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation. †¢ One approach to studying the relationship among these processes is clonal analysis, mapping the cell lineages (clones) derived from each cell in an apical meristem as organs develop. †¢ Researchers use mutations to distinguish a specific meristematic cell from the neighboring cells in the shoot tip. For example, a somatic mutation in an apical cell that prevents chlorophyll production produces an â€Å"albino† cell. o This cell and all its descendants appear as a linear file of colorless cells running down the long axis of the green shoot. †¢ To some extent, the developmental fates of cells in the shoot apex are predictable. o For example, clonal mapping has shown that almost all the cells derived from division of the outermost meristematic cells become part of the dermal tissue of leaves and stems. It is not possible to pinpoint precisely which cells of the meristem will give rise to specific tissues and organs, however, because random changes in rates and planes of cell division can reorganize the meristem. o For example, the outermost cells usually divide in a plane parallel to the surface of the shoot tip. o Occasionally, however, an outer cell divides in a plane perpendicular to this layer, placing one daughter cell beneath the surface, among cells derived from different lineages. †¢ In plants, a cell’s developmental fate is determined not by its membership in a particular lineage but by its final position in an emerging organ.Phase changes mark majo r shifts in development. †¢ In plants, developmental changes can occur within the shoot apical meristem, leading to a phase change in the organs produced. o One example of a phase change is the gradual transition from a juvenile phase to an adult phase. o In some plants, the result of the phase change is a change in the size and shape of leaves. o The leaves of juvenile and mature shoot regions differ in shape and other features. o Once the meristem has laid down the juvenile nodes and internodes, they retain that status even as the shoot continues to elongate and the meristem changes to the mature phase. If axillary buds give rise to branches, those shoots reflect the developmental phase of the main shoot region from which they arise. o Although the main shoot apex may have made the transition to the mature phase, the older region of the shoot continues to give rise to branches bearing juvenile leaves if that shoot region was laid down when the main apex was still in the juven ile phase. o A branch with juvenile leaves may actually be older than a branch with mature leaves. †¢ The juvenile-to-mature phase transition points to another difference in the development of plants versus animals. o In an animal, this ransition occurs at the level of the entire organism, as a larva develops into an adult animal. o In plants, phase changes during the history of apical meristems can result in juvenile and mature regions coexisting along the axis of each shoot. Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristem’s change from a vegetative to a floral phase. †¢ Another striking phase change in plant development is the transition from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem. †¢ This transition is triggered by a combination of environmental cues, such as day length, and internal signals, such as hormones. Unlike vegetative growth, which is indeterminate, the production of a flower by an apical meristem stops primary growth of that shoo t. †¢ This transition is associated with switching â€Å"on† floral meristem identity genes. †¢ The protein products of these genes are transcription factors that help activate the genes required for the development of the floral meristem. †¢ Once a shoot meristem is induced to flower, positional information commits each primordium arising from the flanks of the shoot tip to develop into a specific flower organ—a sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel. Viewed from above, the floral organs develop in four concentric circles, or whorls. o Sepals form the fourth (outermost) whorl, petals form the third, stamens form the second, and carpels form the first (innermost) whorl. †¢ Organ identity genes, or plant homeotic genes, regulate positional information and function in the development of the floral pattern. o Mutations in these genes may lead to the substitution of one type of floral organ for the expected one. †¢ Organ identity genes code for transcript ion factors. †¢ Positional information determines which organ identity genes are expressed in which particular floral-organ primordium. In Arabidopsis, three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model of flower formation identifies how these genes direct the formation of four types of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model proposes that each class of organ identity genes is switched â€Å"on† in two specific whorls of the floral meristem. o A genes are switched on in the two outer whorls (sepals and petals), B genes are switched on in the two middle whorls (petals and stamens), and C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls (stamens and carpels). Sepals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only A genes are active. o Petals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which A and B genes are active. o Stamens arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which B and C genes are a ctive. o Carpels arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only C genes are active. †¢ The ABC model can account for the phenotypes of mutants lacking A, B, or C gene activity. o When gene A is missing, it inhibits C, and vice versa. o If either A or C is missing, the other takes its place.